Table 2 4D textiles and shoes: AM technologies, materials and research/features/applications

(Farahi, 2016)

PolyJet 3D printing

PLA + Shape memory alloy (SMA)

Brand name: Caress of the Gaze (Fig. 6)

Figure 6 Caress of the Gaze. Photo credit: Behnaz Farahi

Development state: Research/prototype

Features: Interactive garment based on eye-gaze tracking technologies. The technologies employed enable the garment to move in response to the other people is gaze, through a camera and SMA actuators embedded in a 3D printed garment

(Goudswaard et al., 2020)

FDM^™ (Physical components)  + Embroidery Machine (Electromechanical components)

Filament: tronxy Flexible TPU + Stretch fabric: lycra

Brand name: FabricClik (Fig. 7)

Figure 7 FabricClik. Project credits: Maas Goudswaard, Abel Abraham, Bruna Goveia da Rocha, Kristina Andersen and Rong-Hao Liang, 2020

Development state: Proof-of-concept

Features: A method for interweaving functional pushbuttons into fabrics through 3D printing and digital embroidery is explored. Made of two layers stitched together as textile-based pushbuttons: Button layer (1) 3D print star-like structures onto pre-stretched fabric and Circuit layer (2) embroider both conductive and insulation circuitry on a pre-stretched fabric

(Guberan & Clopath, 2015)

FDM^™

Not specified: plastic material with different layer thickness + Stretched fabric

Brand name: Active shoes (Fig. 8)

Figure 8 Active Shoes. Project credits: Christophe Guberan + Carlo Clopath, Self-assembly lab, 2015

Development state: Research/prototype

Features: Self-transforming structures which reconfigure into pre-programmed shoe shapes. It contracts around the feet, shrinking in size. The objective was twofold: (1) tailor-made to the client’ s foot and (2) meet the personal design preferences of each client

(Nachtigall et al., 2018)

FDM^™

TPU—FilaFlex

Brand name: Customized 4D printed shoes

Development state: finished—single user

Features: A customized shoe is designed and 3D printed in order to meet specific needs of aesthetic and comfort. The geometry of the material is designed to support, flex and change with the movement of each foot. The manufacturing process was comprised by two stages: (1) the feet is scanned, the digital shoe design is generated using a 3D design software and (2) Printing process