Most cases of reported stress in adults can result from physical, emotional, interpersonal or psychological changes (O’Connor et al. 2008). Many studies have been conducted in the United States (U.S.) on how individuals change appearances during stressful and non-stressful conditions. There has also been some evidence supporting how stress specifically is associated with changes in food choices and dressing habits (Habhab et al. 2009; Hepworth et al. 2010; The American Institute of Stress 2008). Although previous investigations on perceived stress, eating, and dressing have been conducted with Americans (Kandiah and Saiki 2010; Kandiah etal. 2008; Saiki et al. 2012), to date, no research has investigated how these factors affect other cultural groups upon transitioning from their homeland to the United States. Outcomes of research of this nature will enable professionals and scholars with better understanding of appearance (dress and diet) related behaviors and stress.
Recent statistics indicate that 66% of all international students studying in the U.S. are Asians and 48% of them are from China (Institute of International Education 2017a). According to the 2016 data from the Institute of International Education, 32% of all international college students studying in the US are from China (Institute of International Education 2017b). With the influx of Chinese students into the U.S. for, academic advancement, exploration of this population could contribute to the body of knowledge related to stress, eating, and dressing. Additionally, international students enrolled in a U.S. university have added barriers, such as learning different cultural values and languages (Misra and Castillo 2004). Therefore, it is important to study this population to better understand how stress affects eating and dressing behaviors, thus impacting their success of transitioning into a new culture (Berry 2005; Tseng and Fang 2011).
Literature review
Stress and appearance
Stress occurs when demands on an individual cannot be met with an individual’s current set of resources (Greeno and Wing 1994). Stress can be experienced psychologically (e.g. increased feelings of sadness or anxiety; Yau and Potenza 2013), physiologically (e.g., stomach pain due to ulcers; Antonyan and Godlevskii 2012), or biologically (e.g., hormone changes; Allen et al. 2014), and these experiences may vary in magnitude ranging from small (e.g., losing your keys in the morning), to traumatic (e.g., being assaulted; Stults-Kolehmainen and Rajita 2014). There are a variety of methods that may be used to obtain a quantitative measure of psychological, biological, or physiological stress, including self-report (e.g., questionnaires; Shin 2013), biochemical (e.g., urine; Ferguson et al. 2015), behavioral (e.g. measuring error frequencies in spoken language; Laures-Gore et al. 2010), psychophysiological (e.g., neural changes via electroencephalogram; Putman et al. 2014) and neuroendocrine measures (e.g., cellular changes; Baum et al. 1982).
Kiecolt (1994) identified the theory “intentional self-change” which provides an explanation of the phenomenon of changing external physical appearance as a reflection of changing internal states. Appearance varies depending on levels of stress, which is reflected in changes in eating habits (e.g. eating unhealthy foods), exercising less, and dressing habits (e.g., Chang et al. 2008; Stitz and Pierce 2015). Stressful events have been found to change body image and underlying “motivations for changes in body appearance to promote self-image” (Stitz and Pierce 2015, p. 1). The impact of ongoing stress can influence health and self-esteem, which can then affect outward appearance (e.g. Keller et al. 2007; Wyler et al. 1971). Research has found, changes in both dressing habits and food intake as contributors to external appearance alterations due to intensity of internal changes in stress level. For example, tattoos have been used to demonstrate an internal self-change (e.g., Wohlrab et al. 2007) and self-punishment behaviors such as restriction in food intake has been associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (e.g., Ross et al. 2009).
Eating behaviors and stress
Studies have shown alterations in stress or mood can affect appearances through food choices and consumption. A national survey in the U.S. found that approximately 4 in 10 Americans (43%) overate or consumed unhealthy foods to manage stress, whereas more than one-third (36%) due to stress, skipped a meal in the last month (American Psychological Association 2007). Legel et al. (2008) examined comfort food preferences and consumption patterns of women with different emotional tendencies. Food consumption was associated with negative feelings, concerns about weight gain, and satisfying an emotional void. In addition, the pleasurable attributes of food (e.g., flavor, texture, consistency) were also seen as a stress alleviator. There has also been research on the types of foods eaten when under stressful conditions. Wansink et al. (2003) found that males when stressed preferred warm, hearty, meal-related comfort foods, while females preferred sweet, snack-type foods. Likewise, Habhab et al. (2009) found females who were stressed preferred sweet, high-fat foods and women who were not stressed ate more low-fat than high-fat foods.
Using a validated and reliable survey, Saiki et al. (2012) examined the relationship between food and stress. Among female university students there were statistically significant increases in the selection of mixed dishes, salty/crunchy foods, sweet foods, and beverages during perceived stressful conditions.
Within a diverse group of college students, (Errisuriz et al. 2016) indicated that unhealthy food intake (e.g., soda, coffee, energy drinks, salty snacks, frozen food, and fast food) was positively associated with perceived stress. However, when stress management strategies were utilized, food intake of sweet snacks decreased significantly indicating students who were able to better manage stress consumed less sweet snacks. Hou et al. (2013) found that eating behaviors of Chinese adolescents were affected by emotional symptoms (e.g., depression and anxiety) and life stressors (e.g., family life, school life, and other relationships). Students who reported emotional symptoms and life stressors had a significant (p ≤ .001) increase in engaging in unhealthy eating behaviors. When compared to boys, girls had a higher chance of participating in unhealthy eating behaviors.
Dressing behaviors and stress
On a daily basis, people’s dressing behaviors are influenced by factors, such as stress and temperament. A negative event can be the deciding factor on the choice of an outfit (e.g., sweat pants or dresses). Research on the effects of stress on dress habits by the American Institute of Stress (2008) indicated that stress can lead to a negligence of appearance. On the contrary, Saiki et al. (2012) found when stressed, female participants (90.2%; n = 487) reported dressing formally (e.g., heels, suits, etc.), while 67.3% (n = 365) reported dressing fashionably (latest trends).
Varying factors contribute to how stress affects dressing habits. Some proposed factors include: personality, ethnicity, and mood (Kroeger and Thuesen 1998). People with personalities that are more susceptible to stress may experience greater variances in their dressing habits when they are stressed compared to people with more laid back personalities. Kroeger and Thuesen (1998) have observed the link between ethnicity and appearance management noting that Chinese women maintain their appearance while experiencing stressful and non-stressful situations.
Adapting to a different culture may pose physical and mental challenges. Unlike their American counterpart, Chinese individuals have stronger opinions on body image, spending more time on appearance enhancement behaviors (Zhang 2012). When compared to American college women, Chinese students in Asia demonstrated higher levels of body image dissatisfaction. Furthermore, researchers found young females in China exhibited weight concern, dieting behaviors, body weight dissatisfaction, and eating disorders. Although, China is becoming more influenced by western ideals, they appear to retain their traditional beauty standards and perceptions (e.g., tall and thin body, big eyes, a watermelon seed-shaped face, and fair skin) (Zhang).
In spite of the prevalence of independent relationships existing among food, clothing, and stress, no known research has examined the interrelationships of food, clothing, and stress as it impacts Chinese female university students. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, to date, no studies have been conducted related to stress, eating, and dressing behaviors of Chinese adults. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to examine how perceived stress influences eating and dressing behaviors of Chinese female university students studying in the U.S. The following research questions were used. Among Chinese students studying in the U.S
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How does dressing behavior differ during periods of perceived stressful versus non-stressful conditions? and
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How does eating preferences and behavior differ during periods of perceived stressful versus non-stressful conditions.