Pedestrian fatalities comprise a larger percentage of all the deaths and injuries on the road (Damsere-Derry et al., 2010; Schlottmann et al., 2017). In Africa, cases are particularly high with 35% of all deaths attributed to pedestrian accidents in South Africa in 2021 (Stoltz, 2021) and 35% in Kenya in 2020 (Kimuyu, 2021). These high percentages of pedestrian fatalities according to World Health Organization (2013) report accounted for about 38% of the total road traffic accidents in Africa in 2010. The average rate of road death in Africa increased to 40% or 26.6 per 100,000 individuals in 2013 (World Health Organization, 2018).
A study by Ackaah et al. (2020) to examine road traffic crashes at night in Ghana during 2013–2017 revealed the severity of pedestrian fatalities with 44% of the accidents happening at night. This is because some of the roads in both the urban and rural areas lack the needed lighting systems and road markings. These are major road safety concerns or problems since pedestrians walk along the roads or cross them at night. Other attributable factors for pedestrian accidents in Africa especially in Ghana includes, illegal road crossing, driver fatigue (Tulu et al., 2013), speeding, drunk drivers or drunk pedestrians (Ackaah & Adonteng, 2011; Cho et al., 2017), visual impairment, low or no lighting system at night (poor street lighting), poor road infrastructure, use of electronic gadgets while driving or walking and low visibility of the pedestrian (Ackaah et al., 2020; Kouabenan & Guyot, 2004; Mphela et al., 2021; Schwebel et al., 2012). The latter coupled with low lighting conditions at night, leads to poor visibility of the road users or pedestrians hence an increase in night vehicle-pedestrian collisions after dark (Sullivan & Flannagan, 2002). A key reason has been the type of clothing that pedestrians normally wears, which are not reflective and according to Green (2021) makes it difficult for drivers to visually detect pedestrian to avoid possible collisions. Additionally, the poor visual perception in most cases makes it difficult for drivers to see pedestrians at night (Fylan et al., 2020), hence increasing the risk of an accident.
In fact, a recent article by the Ghana News Agency (GNA, 2021) stated that, Sgt Timinka Richard of the Motor Transport and Traffic Department (MTTD) in Ghana urges pedestrians to wear reflective clothing to ensure safety and curb road knockdowns at nights. Even though many pedestrians in the developed economies can afford to purchase these reflective clothing, the unavailability, low aesthetics appeal and increased cost of such clothing have made it difficult for pedestrians in the developing countries in Africa to afford them (Wood et al., 2012). Nevertheless, considering the increase in pedestrian accidents in Africa especially in Ghana, recommendations have been made for road users to wear reflective clothing (Ackaah et al., 2020; Green, 2021; Tyrrell et al., 2004) to enhance their visibility. This is imperative since most of the streets are dark and there is the lack of lighting infrastructures so that they can be seen by approaching vehicles.
Although there are benefits from wearing clothing with reflective properties to ensure safety at night, there needs to be incentive and motivation to wear them. African patterns are cherished by the indigenes which can be applied creatively to enhance the aesthetics, and their interest and use of reflective fabrics. This research therefore aims to use modern jacquard weaving technology to produce African-inspired reflective textiles with cultural patterns to reignite local interest and reinforce the need for reflective clothing to ensure safety at night. A new approach of using reflective threads in materials that can be used in everyday wear during the day and night is proposed. This jacquard weaving technology is environmentally friendly, fast, and efficient as compared to the more time consuming and labour-intensive traditional weaving production methods widely practiced by craftsmen to produce the textiles. The production process from jacquard weaving produces no effluent or toxic waste that are potentially hazardous when released into the environment. These however do not come with functional performance to ensure the safety of the wearer especially at night.
As such, this study poses the following research questions: (i) how can the performance of African inspired textiles be improved for night use? (ii) which eco-friendly approach or technique can be used in the creative process that can incorporate African elements and retro-reflective threads in textiles? and (iii) what are the performance properties of these retro-reflective textiles using African cultural motifs as its design elements?
The significance of the study is the use of a design approach to expand the availability of reflective materials with cultural elements or patterns that not only reduces the high pedestrian fatalities at night but further showcases the rich heritage of the African culture to the World. This practical design approach broadens the scope of creative ideas for other cultures to produce reflective materials for their residents towards a more sustainable goal of road safety as inscribed in targets 11.2 of the United Nations 17 Sustainable development Goals (SDGs) in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. These textiles would improve the interest of the people to providing materials that ensures a personal safety at night-time due to their retro-reflection properties.
African patterns
The African art forms produced by skilled craftsmen in the second largest continent in the world incorporate indigenous symbols in their patterns. These art forms are found on different items like textiles, sculptures, pottery, architecture, baskets and jewellery amongst others. They carry significant messages or have meanings that tells a unique cultural history of events or happenings. African patterns are commonly cherished by the people because of their cultural values as a means of identity, personal adornment and an effective means to communicate messages to the viewers. Traditionally, the indigenous people use these patterns on different medium to communicate for example the human history, events or happenings in the community. In addition to the colour types used, these patterns further gives the individual’s sense of mood either sad or happy for a funeral or a naming ceremony respectively. This visual communication method of the African patterns gives the religious and social insights of their culture. The wealth of patterns in Africa are generally grouped into two types; geometric and figurative patterns. They are a visual expression of the history, belief and philosophy of the culture (Evans, 2017). Depending on the cultures, their patterns may vary in terms of the style, shapes and colours. These African patterns are used by craftsmen to produce simple to complex visual forms through different techniques like weaving, carving, dyeing, sewing, painting and hand printing.
African geometric patterns are composed of rectangles, triangles, squares and circles which are incorporated into textiles, painted on walls of buildings amongst others. These geometric patterns carry significant cultural value. Notable examples are the Ndebele wall paintings in South Africa, and Kente cloth and Sirigu wall paintings in Ghana. Figure 1a and b show these geometric patterns which are either painted on walls or woven into traditional type of fabric. The patterns of the Ndebele wall paintings are created by women who use earth colours to paint the walls of buildings. Patterns are grouped together based on the five main colour choices (pink, green, sky blue, yellow to gold, red to dark red) from interesting design structures that reinforce their message to viewers (Jcroman, 2015; Rose, 2013). In the Sirigu wall paintings, Agurinuuse motif in Fig. 1a(i) means linked hands, Zaalin daa motif in Fig. 1a(ii) symbolises male essence and Zaalin nyanga motif in Fig. 1a(iii) symbolises female essence. These last two symbols are collectively called Zaalinga or net, which draws on the importance of netted containers or fish or calabash nets to saveguard their calabashes from breaking (Wemegah, 2013). Finally, there are the geometric motifs on Asante Kente cloth in Fig. 1b. The Nkyemfre motif in Fig. 1b(i) means a pot shed, and symbolises service, knowledge, healing power, recyclability and history. The Fa hia kɔtwere Agyeman motif in Fig. 1b(ii) means lean your poverty on or carry your poverty to Agyeman (a noble individual who was known to be generous when this pattern emerged) symbolises faith and hope (Essel, 2019). Apremo motif in Fig. 1b(iii) means canon and symbolises resistance against foreign domination, and Achimota Nsafoa motif in Fig. 1b(iv) means Achimota keys, symbolises harmony, unity in diversity, knowledge (Asibey et al., 2017).
Figurative patterns are composed of images of animals and humans that depicts the historical signifcance of the culture. These types of patterns are found commonly on the Fon Applique cloth of Benin (West Africa) which are produced by men who cut out images that depict animals, humans, plants and objects which are then sewn onto a traditional woven fabric (Kimani, 2018) and the Adire cloth of Nigeria which resists starching and dyed an indigo colour. In terms of textile forms, simple to complex figurative patterns are either woven, sewn, embroidered, dyed or painted directly on the surface of the fabric. Figure 2a and b show some of the African figurative patterns that are used in textile applications.
Retro-reflective textiles
While retro-reflective materials have been developed for applications in different areas, nevertheless, they are specially used on clothing to produce products that improve the visibility of individuals at night thus reducing fatalities. Retro-reflective effects are imported onto the surface of a material by using one of two system technologies: embedded glass beads and corner cubes or prismatic reflectors (3M, 2014; Önlü & Halaçeli, 2012), which differ in structural composition. Retro-reflective textiles are made by coating the surface of a base cloth with adhesives and embedding glass beads onto the cloth. This manufactured structure creates an additional layer on the base fabric which may influence its eventual thickness and tactile feel. Alternatively, retro-reflective inks can be used to imprint design patterns onto a base fabric to impart reflective effects. These inks enhance the ability to reflect light back to its source without scattering the light. Lloyd (2008) further added that, three key principles are found for retro-reflection or bouncing light back to its origins without absorbing the light: specular reflection, refraction, and total internal reflection. The most basic retro-reflector are glass beads. Their refractive index is an imperative property (Taek et al., 1999) which dictates the visibility and reflection distribution of light back to its source without scattering the reflected light in different directions. Retro-reflective textiles are used for reflective clothing, and backpacks and used as stripes on construction vests, cycling wears etc.